Cognitive vs Neurological Testing: A Patient’s Guide

Cognitive Testing vs. Neurological Testing — Which One Do You Need?

If your memory slips are starting to feel less like “Oops!” and more like “Uh-oh…,” you’re not alone—and you’re not without options. From quick in-office screens to deep-dive evaluations and high-tech brain scans, different tests answer very different questions about how your brain is working. This guide demystifies them, so you know exactly what to expect—and which path gets you answers faster.

Key Takeaways

• Start simple, escalate smart: Brief cognitive screens flag issues; neuropsychological testing explains them; neurological testing looks for physical causes.

• One size doesn’t fit all: Different symptoms (memory lapses vs. tremors/seizures) point to different testing paths.

• Results drive care: Clear profiles of strengths/deficits plus imaging findings help tailor treatment, rehab, and next steps—and support insurance approvals.

Cognitive vs. Neurological Testing: The Hidden Differences That Matter

Suppose you or a loved one find that you're at a loss for common words, frequently misplace your keys or phone, are getting in fender benders, or showing other signs of cognitive deficits. You decide you'll speak with your primary care physician about the issues you're having. But what to expect from that process? And what if you're just curious about your cognitive function?

No one test is a one-size-fits-all. Which is why you'll probably end up taking a battery of tests, not just one or two. You'll likely start with simple cognitive tests with your primary care physician, and may move on to more comprehensive neuropsychological testing, which will tell your provider a lot more about your cognitive issues. A full neurological exam may be performed by a neurologist or neuropsychologist. It will check for structural abnormalities within your brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles.

In this article we will discuss the importance of assessing brain and nervous system health, and clarify cognitive vs neurological testing, as well as the role or neuropsychological assessment. We'll also discuss what to expect of various tests, and how they can inform a treatment plan. Which type of testing is right for you? It depends, so read on for the details and differences.

Testing For Cognitive Health

Cognitive tests are used to check for problems with cognition, i.e., your mental functioning. You might request it -- or have it recommended to you by a family member or physician if they suspect mental decline or what's known as mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

For example, you might too often forget where you put things like keys or your phone, or forget important dates or appointments. Or you grope for the right words in the midst of a conversation. You may also feel frustrated that things that you used to find easy are now hard, or you may be worried about coordination issues. These can be signs of cognitive impairment.

Some practitioners routinely perform cognitive tests on anyone over 65. Other times it may follow a traumatic brain injury. Cognitive tests can occur in a doctor's office, or an emergency room or hospital.

What Is Cognitive Testing?

Cognitive tests check for problems related to your mental functioning. Initial tests are generally short and sweet, and involve answering basic questions and performing simple tasks.

What is cognition? Cognition is your brain's ability to process all the types of information it takes in through all your senses, including the following skills:

• Paying attention

• Making decisions

• Using good judgment

• Learning

• Problem solving

• Reasoning

• Memory (both short and long term)

• Thinking

• Understanding

• Executive functioning

Logically then, cognitive tests help assess those types of cognitive skills. By extension, it can give medical practitioners valuable information that can lead to proper diagnostic accuracy for conditions such as dementia, ADHD, MCI, brain fog, learning disabilities, traumatic brain injury, bipolar disorder, and other conditions.

Cognitive tests may reveal whether you have a condition called mild cognitive impairment, or MCI. Mild cognitive impairment is a phase that fits between the normal aging process, and the beginning of dementia.

Simple cognitive tests won't show exactly what condition is causing your cognitive impairment. Instead, it indicates whether you need more testing to understand what could be causing problems.

In these cases, initial cognitive tests would be followed by a more comprehensive assessment, which may also include neurological tests, sometimes simply called neuro tests. Testing suggestive of cognitive impairment may also be followed up with neuropsychological testing, a more comprehensive cognitive test.

Types of Cognitive Testing

A simple cognitive test is simply a set of several questions or simple tasks that you answer or perform to the best of your ability. No need to prepare, beyond getting a good night's sleep the night before and eating a healthy satiating breakfast.

Cognitive tests take less than 15 minutes, in a healthcare provider's office (unless after an accident or traumatic brain injury). They focus on testing your memory, thinking, language, and ability to identify things. To remove bias and provide objective assessment, they are standardized tests with standardized administration.

Cognitive tests can help assess brain function and determine if neurocognitive dysfunction is a problem. Neurocognitive dysfunction can be caused by Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, traumatic brain injury, stroke, MS, Parkinson's, meningitis, autism, and more.

Four of the most common initial cognitive screening tests in use today are:

Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) Test. A 15-minute test that includes memorizing a short list of words, copying shapes, and categorizing images. Research shows it to be more effective at detecting mild cognitive impairment than the next test on this list, the MMSE. The Montreal cognitive assessment was developed over 20 years ago, and is time-tested.

Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE). The mini mental state examination takes about 10 minutes, and has a 50-year track record. It assess five areas of cognitive brain functions. The MMSE has 11 questions and tasks, including orientation questions such as knowing what day it is and where you are, counting backwards, word recall, and identifying everyday objects (such as a pencil or watch).

Like all things in life, this cognitive test has its strengths and weaknesses. The mini mental state examination is less sensitive than the Montreal Cognitive Assessment at detecting mild cognitive impairment. It also requires manual scoring.

However, this is one of the most appropriate tests compared to other cognitive tests to uncover serious cognitive deficits.

Mini-Cognitive Impairment Test. Also called the Mini-Cog. This is the shortest and easiest of the top 3 tests. The Mini-Cog just involves memorizing a short list of objects and making a drawing of a clock showing a specific time. Since it only takes about 3 minutes and is so simple to perform, it's fairly widely used.

Self-Administered Gerocognitive Exam (SAGE) -- A cognitive screening test designed to detect early signs of cognitive impairment at home. You might want to take the SAGE if you're concerned that you may have cognitive impairment. Or you might want a family member or friend take it if they have memory or thinking problems.

SAGE can be a helpful tool to discover whether neuropsychological assessment, psychological testing, or neurological tests may be needed. You download the test, print it out and answer the questions in ink with no assistance from others. Then you take your answer sheet to your physician so they can score it, discuss results, and determine intervention principles.

Other tests that may be used include the Boston Naming Test and the Clock Drawing Test. The Boston naming test involves naming a series of black line drawings within 20 seconds each. The Clock Drawing Test screens for visual spatial skills, attention, motor skills, and executive functioning.

Digital technology is starting to replace pen and paper type cognitive assessments, leading to more objective, efficient, and accurate results. It is administered identically each time. It's also helping streamline test administration while offering greater clinical neuropsychology insights to providers. AI may take digital assessments to another level by incorporating machine learning in the process.

Assessing Various Cognitive Domains

Cognitive screening tests evaluate for cognitive impairment by assessing various neuropsychological specific cognitive domains, such as:

Language Domain.

Your language domain involves language -- naming, reading, writing, and repeating words. There are many ways to test for language. Some practitioners evaluate language by noting a patient's communication throughout the interview. The Boston naming test is used to test the language domain. Importantly, the language domain can become mildly impaired with just normal aging, highlighted by the inability to find words.

Executive Functioning.

Executive functional outcomes include skills such as planning, organizing, mental flexibility, working memory, list-making, and executing tasks. Someone who has more trouble following a recipe than they used to might be showing executive functioning impairment. Executive function testing is done by naming as many items in a category as possible within one minute. For example, how many animals can you name in the allotted time? Other neuropsychological testing for this cognitive domain include the Trail Making Test and the Wisconsin Sorting Test (both described below).

Abstract Reasoning.

Can you analyze information, detect patterns and relationships, and problem solve on an intangible theoretical level? That's abstract reasoning. For example, identifying patterns or similarities between two things that seem to be dissimilar, such as an airplane and a bicycle.

Memory.

Memory is complicated. It involves encoding information and storing it, then retrieving it for later use. Where it gets complicated is differences in types of memory. Short term memory vs. long term memory. Long-term memory can be further divided into procedural memory and declarative memory. Which are further divided into episodic and semantic.

Here's what all these terms mean:

• Short term memory -- small pieces of info you use briefly, such as a list of today's key projects.

• Long term memory -- used longer term, such as over a period of years.

• Procedural memory -- the information used to perform or complete frequently done tasks, such as driving a car. Involves the procedure you use.

• Declarative memory -- storing and recall of facts and events, like a family member's birthday.

• Episodic memory -- recall about a specific experience, like a trip you took last year. Or any other episode/event in life.

• Semantic memory -- general knowledge or facts you've memorized, such as math facts or state capitals.

Due to the complexity of memory, it's important to identify what type of memory is under evaluation during cognitive screening tests. As well, normal aging can trigger slight memory impairments, although daily living activities would remain intact.

Attention, Focus, and Concentration.

These specific cognitive functions are often evaluated together. They're frequently tested by asking the patient to spell words backwards, or subtract a number such as 7 from 100, in five increments. Some clinical neuropsychologists simply assess the patient's levels of attentiveness throughout the interview.

Visual Spatial Skills.

Neuropsychological testing for visual spatial skills evaluates your ability to conceptualize and manipulate 2- or 3-dimensional objects... as you'd do when copying figures or drawing a clock. This cognitive skill may not be apparent when taking a medical history. But impairment may manifest as suddenly having trouble parallel parking their car, or getting into small accidents because their visual spatial skills became dysfunctional. The clock drawing test results may speak to this specific cognitive function.

What is Neuropsychological Testing?

Taking things a step farther than mere screening cognitive tests, neuropsychological testing involves more comprehensive tests that strive to determine how your brain function is, and to be able to better understand the relationship between your brain function, behavior, mood, and thinking. Neuropsychological testing and cognitive testing are related, but neuropsychological testing is more extensive.

Neuropsychological testing is a specialized assessment of brain function and behavior, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioral function. It attempts to find a diagnosis, identify your cognitive strengths and weaknesses, and develop a personalized treatment plan and rehabilitation strategies for those with executive functioning deficits. Cognitive rehabilitation is a key goal and aspect of treating cognitive impairments and improve cognitive functions.

A full neuropsychological evaluation will ideally identify your specific cognitive deficits, and differentiate between neurological and psychological causes, differentiate between Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, localize any cognitive deficits, and help formulate a personalized treatment plan to boost cognitive abilities, improve functional outcomes, and facilitate cognitive recovery.

What does a neuropsychological evaluation test for? Plenty!

• General intelligence, as in the Wechsler intelligence scale

• Reading comprehension (yes, for adults!)

• Your ability to use and understand language

• Mental processing speed

• Learning and memory

• Reasoning

• Executive functioning -- the high level skills you use to organize and plan, manage your time, solve problems, form judgments, exercise self control

• Visual spatial skills -- involved in tying shoes, making a bed, drawing, driving a car...

• Emotional functioning (an aspect of psychological testing)

• Fine motor skills and muscle coordination dictated by the central nervous system

• Adaptive functioning such as the capacity for relationships and the ability to live independently

Neuropsychological and cognitive testing is used in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease, traumatic brain injury, dementia, epilepsy, brain tumors, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and learning difficulties. It can also help differentiate between mild traumatic brain injury and severe traumatic brain injury.

Types of Clinical Neuropsychology testing

Neuropsychological evaluations will be more involved and take longer than simple screening cognitive tests. Some of the most well-known neuropsychological assessments include these tests for neuropsychological performance:

• Trail Making Test (TMT) -- assesses cognitive skills such as visual attention, processing speed, and executive functioning... and the ability to think, reason, and remember. The test has two parts, and can be administered anywhere. The goal is to assess cognitive abilities such as those required in safe driving, and to assess normal functioning. It has few functional limitations because it does not require a specialist to administer the test.

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) -- a comprehensive IQ test that covers memory, processing speed, and reasoning. The Wechsler intelligence scale is considered the "gold standard" for intelligence tests in adults. Originally developed in 1955, it's in its fourth edition, hence the Roman numeral IV. This intelligence test is widely used in psychological and neuropsychological testing, for neurological injury, and mental health diagnostics.

• Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) -- a widely recognized cognitive assessment tool for evaluating executive functioning and cognitive flexibility. It evaluates a person's ability to adapt to changing rules, solve problems, and think quickly. The Wisconsin Card Sorting test involves a set of cards, each displaying different shapes, colors, and numbers. Participants are told to match their cards to a reference set based on a specific rule, such as matching by color. But the rule in the test can change without warning, requiring the participant to quickly adapt their strategy.

  WCST neuropsychological test results have become a cornerstone for diagnosing and managing ADHD, schizophrenia, and traumatic brain injury.

• Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) -- a computerized system that evaluates cognitive function and can diagnose cognitive impairment from various causes, Alzheimer's disease, traumatic brain injury, ADHD, or other causes. Rather than relying on paper and pen, the CANTAB utilizes advanced technology for a more advanced and automated assessment. One of CANTAB's best features is its ability to detect subtle cognitive impairment, often years ahead of what other cognitive tests could do. CANTAB tests tasks involving visual spatial skills, memory, and problem solving challenges. Results are analyzed using sophisticated algorithms to generate a detailed report of an individual's cognitive strengths and weaknesses. Early detection and accurate diagnosis is where the CANTAB neuropsychological testing really shines.

What to Expect During Neuropsychological Testing

Neuropsychological testing is performed by clinical neuropsychologists and/or psychologists. Their first step should be to take a good patient history, and perform a physical exam. Cognitive impairment can make it hard for a patient to express themselves fully, so it's important to bring an advocate to the appointment.

Depending on which batteries of tests are performed to determine brain function, the duration of of these tests can take about one to three hours, or most of a day. It all depends on how many types of neuropsychological assessments they run.

There's no real preparation for these tests, other than to get a good night's sleep so to avoid memory dysfunction, and eat a protein-rich breakfast so you're not in a blood-sugar deficit when doing the cognitive tests. Taking a morning walk or getting other exercise can also aid working memory. (This assumes you're doing this in a practitioner's office and not a hospital or emergency room setting.)

If your cognitive test results or your neuropsychological assessment shows a below-normal level of cognitive functions, you most likely have a condition that affects your memory or your brain. Your provider may need to do further testing to pin down the exact condition if it's not clear with what they've done so far.

Although some conditions that cause cognitive impairment are not treatable, others can be treatable -- such as medication side effects, depression, sleep disorders, urinary tract infections, thyroid disease, and vitamin deficiencies such as vitamin B12, vitamin D, iron, thyroid, and inflammation.

What Is Neurological Testing?

Cognitive screening tests are widely used, but what if your practitioner wants a peek at the inner workings of your brain structure that can't be determined by cognitive tests? That's when they will likely want to order a neurological exam to evaluate the brain and nervous system function. If you have tremors or balance problems, neurological testing will probably jump to the front of the line.

A neurological exam (sometimes simply called a neuro exam) is a physical exam that identifies signs of disorders that affect your brain, spinal cord, and nerves. A neuro exam can include any of the following techniques to assess nervous system function:

• Cognition and speech

• Cranial nerves -- nerves of your head and face

• Reflexes, such as tapping your knee with a reflex hammer

• Perceptions of feeling around your body, resulting from stimulations like touch and vibration

• Gait and mobility

• Spine

• Level of consciousness (after a traumatic brain injury, for example)

Nervous system disorders that are detected from neuro exams might include infections, movement disorders, neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and dementia, stroke, and neuromuscular disorders such as ALS, MS, traumatic brain injury, epilepsy.

The physical functions often assessed in a neurological exam include your reflexes, coordination, muscle strength, nerve function, and brain structure.

Types of Neurological Testing

Common neurological testing tools include MRI and CT scans to provide detailed images of the brain and spinal cord, including bleeding, swelling, masses, and function. These scans are most commonly used for structural evaluation.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyography (EMG) measure electrical activity in the brain and muscles, respectively. They look for functional abnormalities in brain and nerve activity.

The neurological physical exam is often the first step in identifying symptoms that require further testing. In the physical exam, the practitioner will assess reflexes, coordination, muscle strength, and sensation. They're looking for baseline neurological function and screening for disorders. The neurological physical exam can occur in conjunction with neuropsychological testing or a neuropsychological evaluation.

As part of your neuro exam, your practitioner may perform the following testing components:

• Mental functioning -- You may be asked to answer questions about date, time, and location, asked to count out loud, repeat a short sequence of words, or describe how you feel.

• Cranial nerve assessment -- Since this is how your brain communicates with your upper body, they might test movements of your face, eyes, and tongue, test your vision, and test your hearing and sense of smell.

• Movement, coordination, and balance -- This may involve them asking you to move your arms and legs, perform fine motor skills such as writing, walking in a straight line or take steps on your heels or toes, or close your eyes and touch your nose.

• Reflexes -- Your neurologist will test your automatic response to specific triggers, like stimulating the sole of your foot, tapping your knee with a rubber hammer, and so forth.

• Sensory exam -- This tests your ability to perceive pain, temperature and other sensations. They may ask you to close your eyes and move your toes. They may put warm or cold objects against your skin, lightly stroke your skin with a cotton ball, or touch different areas of your body with a pin.

• Level of consciousness -- If you're in a coma, this tests brain activity using the Glasgow Coma Scale. It'll assess your ability to move based on a command, open your eyes, and speak.

• Autonomic nervous system -- Controls vital functions like breathing. Your neurologist may ask about bowel and bladder control, check your blood pressure, and perform other tests.

A functional MRI (fMRI) tracks blood flow to assess brain function in real time.

What to Expect During Neurological Testing

A neurologist, certified nurse practitioner, physician assistant, or clinical neuropsychologist will conduct the testing. These specialists diagnose and treat brain, nerve, and spinal disorders. Some neurologists specialize even further, such as dealing only with movement disorders.

There isn't really any preparation to speak of. Wear loose clothing, write up notes about your symptoms and how long you've had them, what triggered them, and your overall health history. Your neurologist will want to know all about your health history.

Neurological assessments vary in how long they take, sometimes depending on how backed up the waiting room is on the day of your visit. The assessments may involved scans and/or electrodes.

How the Tests Overlap — and Where They Don’t

When you hear the terms neurologist and neuropsychologist, you may be tempted to shrug your shoulders and think, "They sound the same." But actually, they're not quite the same. They each focus on different things.

A neurologist is a specialist that focuses on diagnosing and treating neurological (brain) disorders. These disorders can affect the brain, spinal cord, muscles, and nerves. And can include treating MS, stroke, epilepsy, and Parkinson's disease. A neurologist may also treat someone with traumatic brain injury, such as someone who's been in a car wreck or suffered head trauma. They often use medication in their treatment plans.

A neuropsychologist, on the other hand, is a specialized psychologist who focuses on neurological disorders and disease processes. Neuropsychologists treat neurological conditions that affect human behavior, personality and mood. This would include diagnosing and treating things like dementia, movement disorders, and brain injuries such as tumor, concussion, and stroke.

In simplest terms, neurologists treat the physical components of a nervous system disorder or injury. A neuropsychologist treats the mental, cognitive, and behavioral issues of brain disorders without the use of medication. Both specialists could treat the same patient using different approaches for the same disorder.

Since their specialties are so similar (despite their differing orientation about treatments), you may end up working with both types of specialists. A neurologist will pay special attention to other diseases that could affect or interact with their nervous system disorder, such as diabetes, an infectious disease, or high blood pressure. Perhaps even a psychiatric disorder. And they may be more likely to prescribe medications to address those problems.

There are instances where both the neurologist and a neuropsychologist are needed to collaborate for the best abilities related outcomes.

How to Know Which Test You Need

So, which test do you need? Do you need just a simple cognitive test, a screening cognitive test? Or neuropsychological testing? Maybe your symptoms are severe enough to warrant neurological testing in addition. Here's a starting point in your decision...

• For memory loss or brain fog, start with cognitive testing.

• For tremors, numbness, or seizures, a doctor will likely order neurological testing to see what's going on under the hood, so to speak.

• For sudden behavior changes or personality changes, most likely both cognitive testing and neurological testing. Some doctors might order psychological and neuropsychological testing.

If you have a relationship with a primary care physician, it makes sense to start with this person. They (presumably) already know and have a relationship with you and know your family history. This may also be the person you're most comfortable with, and might be the person who coordinates your care.

It should be mentioned that you should pay special attention if you have a family history of dementia or Alzheimer's disease. Ditto for if you've had genetic testing done, and have the genetic predisposition for dementia. In these cases, you'll want to be more aware and more proactive, and may even want to perform the SAGE test, do brain training, get exercise, get good sleep, and eat a Mediterranean diet. And if possible, also give your brain the best brain-loving nutrients possible as a prophylactic strategy.

Costs, Accessibility, and Insurance

While neuropsychological testing is indispensable for diagnosing cognitive impairment and emotional and behavioral issues, getting insurance to cover it can be tricky. Insurers have strict requirements and you have to jump through all their hoops. Most insurers classify these types of tests under mental health or neurological benefits, subjecting them to those deductibles, co-pays, and coverages. Some companies impose lifetime or annual caps on these assessments, effectively restricting the number of tests covered.

Co-pays and deductibles greatly affect the final cost to you, the patient. Your insurance company will require proof of medical necessity to diagnose or treat a neurological condition. Justification may include cognitive impairment, memory loss, traumatic brain injury, developmental disorders, and mental health conditions that affect daily life. Vague statements are likely to be denied. Supporting documentation is imperative. It's a good idea to keep a diary or some kind of record that could be used as evidence.

You should check with your insurer before proceeding with psychological and neuropsychological testing, to avoid any nasty surprises. Always get pre-authorization. In writing. Pre-approval timelines also vary. Know what they are for your plan.

Benefits vary by insurance plan. Medicare Part B covers a separate visit with a doctor or health care provider who will fully evaluate your cognitive function, and establish or confirm a diagnosis (like dementia or Alzheimer's), and develop a care plan. After you meet your Part B deductible, you'll pay 20% of the Medicare approved amount, unless you have supplementary insurance that kicks in.

Medicare also has a free annual wellness visit, which focuses on preventive care and assessing personal risks. It does not include neuropsychological evaluations.

One of the best ways to find qualified neurologists or neuropsychologists is to ask your primary care doctor to refer you as a patient to someone they know and trust. Ask friends or family who they like or know of. Find out what the practice guidelines are, their payment policies, and the practitioner's educational background. Check their reviews in online sites such as HealthGrades, although that should be a collaborative factor, not the main one.

Summary

Cognitive screening tests (like MoCA, MMSE, Mini-Cog, and SAGE) are brief tools that flag potential problems and indicate whether more evaluation is needed. Neuropsychological testing is a comprehensive, standardized battery that profiles specific cognitive domains—memory, language, attention, executive function, visual-spatial skills—to clarify diagnosis, severity, and treatment planning. Neurological testing (exam plus tools like MRI/CT, EEG/EMG, and sometimes fMRI) investigates the structure and function of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles to uncover physical causes behind symptoms. The article explains when each test is used, what they measure, how they overlap, how to prepare, insurance considerations (including Medicare), and how results inform a personalized care plan.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between cognitive and neuropsychological assessment?

Cognitive assessments are quick, short, and easily administered tests that reveal whether further assessments are needed. They're like an initial screening and take from 5 to 15 minutes. A neuropsychological assessment is a more comprehensive evaluation which can take several hours to an entire day. The neuropsychological evaluation gives far more information about the cognitive status of the person getting the testing.

What does a cognitive test consist of?

A cognitive test can consist of answering questions and performing simple tasks. For example, you might be asked to repeat a short list of words, or copy a drawing, or count backwards. These quick cognitive assessments usually take about 5 to 15 minutes.

What is the 12-question test for dementia?

The 12-question test for dementia is a simple DIY test called the SAGE test that can be performed at home without the help of anyone else. Once completed, you take it to your doctor for scoring. SAGE stands for Self Administered Gerocognitive Examination. There are four forms of the test. You only use one form, as they are interchangeable.

What are the five neurological tests?

Brain scans as neurological tests utilize several imaging techniques that can diagnose tumors, blood vessel malformations, stroke, injuries, scars, inflammation, abnormal brain development, and brain hemorrhage. The five main tests include CT scan, MRI, PET, functional MRI, and SPECT. The choice of scan depends on the symptoms and what the practitioner hopes to discover. Brain scans are done by technicians in an outpatient testing facility or in a hospital.

What is the two finger test for dementia?

The 2-finger test for dementia is a simple test that can reveal early signs of dementia. Basically it involves holding up two fingers with one hand, while pointing with the other hand. Many people with early-stage dementia have trouble with dual tasks, especially those that must sync both motor and cognitive functions.